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§4 Nouns

The nominal system of Pine is complex and involves grammatical cases, apophony and diaphony. Pine has a rich system of nominal declensions, which are based on the phonological structure of the noun – the number of syllables of a noun, whether polysyllabic nouns begin with a vowel or a consonant, if the initial consonant of the noun and its stressed coda share the same broad place of articulation, whether a noun ends in a consonant or a vowel, and whether the stressed vowel and the last vowel of a vocalic noun have the same broad place of articulation are some of the most common features that define a noun’s declension type.

Pine nouns are declined for multiple cases (nine cases but only seven surface forms) and two numbers. This means that each noun has two sets of seven different forms. The case alignment system of Pine is called diplologous – there are two different possible case markings for the subject of both monovalent and polyvalent verbs – the active case for agentive subjects, and the patientive case for unagentive subjects. Objects only have one case, called the accusative. There are in fact three cases that share a surface form: the patientive case of unagentive subjects, the accusative case of objects, and the genitive, which indicates possession or some attributive quality of a noun to another argument. The name of this form shared by the patientive, accusative and genitive cases is the sematic form. The form of unmarked nouns in the active case are called the asematic form. The words asematic and active are sometimes used interchangeably, but active denotes the function of the case, while asematic denotes the lack of markings of a noun. All asematic nouns are therefore in the active case, but sematic nouns can be in the patientive, accusative or genitive case.

The asematic and sematic cases (active, patientive, accusative and genitive) form the primary cases of Pine. Nouns can appear in other cases, which collectively are referred to as oblique cases. Oblique cases are most often derived from the sematic form of a noun. The oblique cases are:

Adjectives do not decline when attributive to a noun, but they do decline when they are in attributive position without a head noun.

The case system of Pine can be organised as shown in the table below. Case categories indicate whether a specific case applies to subjects, objects or oblique arguments. The form base indicates whether a case is formed on the basis of the unmarked or marked form of the noun. The case itself is the morphosyntactic function description, and the approximate function is given for each case.

§4.1 Overview of Nominal Declensions

The most fundamental grouping of declensions is based on the number of syllables. As such, declensions are organised into four fundamental categories: monosyllabic nouns, bisyllabic nouns, polysyllabic nouns and finally teleutophonic nouns, which have two or more syllables, and whose last syllable changes regularly in the sematic form.

To better understand how declensions are organised in Pine, it is useful to understand the following concepts that relate to nominal declensions and declension groups.

§4.1.1 Onset & Coda

Bisyllabic nouns that begin with a consonant decline according to the relationship between the word-initial consonant, or onset, and the first consonant following the stressed vowel, or the coda. For example, the world kaḍka ‘grass’ has k- as its onset and -ḍ- as its coda. In the context of noun declension, unless specified otherwise, onset and coda always refer to the stressed syllable of a noun.

§4.1.2 Heterorganic & Homorganic

The relationship between the onset and coda of bisyllabic words is an important feature of Pine declension patterns. The words homorganic and heterorganic refer to this relationship. Onsets and codas are organised into three broad categories: labial, coronal and dorsal. Note that the glide -v- is included in consonants with regard to this, but the glide -į- is not, and is instead considered to be a vowel. In clusters not listed below, only the first member of a cluster determines the place of articulation.

labial

m ṃ p b v

coronal

t d ḍ s ṡ ts tṡ r ṛ l ḷ ƛ lį ḷį n ṇ nį ṇį dn ng kn

dorsal

k g ġ h hį ḥ kṇ tġ

When both the onset and the coda of a noun belong to the same category, the noun is said to be homorganic. If the onset belongs to one category and the coda to another, the noun is said to be heterorganic. For example, the word tsukṇi ‘knife’ has a coronal onset (ts-) but a dorsal-initial coda (-kṇ-), which makes tsukṇi a heterorganic noun. In contrast, the word ṇįirra ‘nose’ has both a coronal onset (ṇį-) and coda (-rr-), making it homorganic. The word ṛirka ‘raven’ has a complex coda, but only the initial consonant (-r-, not -k- in -rk-) matters here. Because both ṛ- and -r- are coronal, ṛirka is a homorganic noun.

Homorganic nouns gain a word-final -n in the sematic form, whereas heterorganic nouns do not. For example, tsukṇi ‘knife’ has the sematic form tsuoġne, while ṛirka ‘raven’ has the sematic form ṛỉrkkon.

Organicity and phonicity combine to give four different types of nouns, which constitute a significant portion of all nominal declensions: bisyllabic non-consonantal nouns:

§4.1.3 Archeaphonic vs. Enteraphonic

Bisyllabic nouns that begin with a consonant may be either homorganic or heteorganic, and are called archeaphonic. But not all nouns begin with a consonant. Vowel-initial nouns are called enteraphonic nouns, which is a grouping of bisyllabic noun declensions. All enteraphonic nouns have a sematic form in -n, for example alda ‘book’ has the sematic form ảltten .

§4.1.4 Symphonic vs. Antiphonic

The words symphonic and antiphonic refer to a similar idea as homorganic and heterorganic nouns. Instead of comparing the place of articulation of the onset and coda of bisyllabic nouns, symphony and antiphony is a comparison between the stressed nucleus of a noun (its first stressed vowel) and the word-final vowel of the same word. Pine distinguishes three types of vowels:

amphiphonic vowels

e i a

opisthophonic vowels

á o u oa

prosthophonic vowels

y ů ai ả

Amphiphonic and prosthophonic vowels often cluster together, but in cases where a noun contains only prosthophonic vowels, then the alignment is considered prosthophonic, but if amphiphonic and prosthophonic vowels co-occur, then the noun is amphiphonic with prosthothesis. For example, tůaƛƛa 'large pine' is amphiphonic (and would require prosthothesis if any ending added contains -u- or -o-), while ṇysky 'lack' is purely prosthophonic. The stressed vowel <a> (indicated here as á) is opisthophonic, but unstressed <a> is amphiphonic.

The long vowel ả [æː] is considered front, but all other long vowels belong to the same class as their non-long counterparts. Likewise, the first member of a diphthong dictates whether the diphthong itself is an amphiphonic, opisthophonic or a prosthophonic diphthong:

front diphtongs

ei ey eů ie ia iu ůi ay ai

back diphthongs

oi ui au

Polarity refers to the front or back quality of a vowel. When both the stressed nucleus and the word-final vowel of a word are both amphiphonic/prosthophonic or opisthophonic, the noun is said to be symphonic. If the stressed nucleus and the word-final vowel are not both either amphiphonic/prosthophonic or opisthophonic, then the noun is said to be antiphonic. If both the stressed nucleus and word-final vowel are prosthophones, then the polarity is said to be prosthophonic.

This means that for consonant-initial and vowel-final bisyllabic nouns, which is the largest declension group in Pine, the exact declension pattern is determined by whether they are heterorganic and symphonic, heterorganic and antiphonic, homorganic and symphonic, or homorganic and antiphonic.

Antiphonic heterorganic nouns have a sematic form ending in a lax vowel (-e, -o, -ů), while symphonic heterorganic nouns have a sematic form ending in a tense vowel (-i, -u, -y). For example, bakvi ‘house’ is antiphonic and has the sematic form boagve, while biḍmi ‘soup’ is symphonic and has the sematic form bỉṃṃu.

Likewise, all symphonic nouns, whether heterorganic or homorganic, see their final vowel undergo polarity inversion, which is the change from a back vowel to a front vowel, or a front vowel to a back vowel, for example as in biḍmi ‘soup’, where the final vowel -i goes to -u. Polarity inversion does not affect -y- and -ů- however. Polarity inversion triggers additional changes in the stressed nucleus, causing fronting if the polarity inversion is towards a front vowel, and backing if it is towards a back vowel. For example, lủbma ‘speech, speaking’ is heterorganic symphonic, which means the final -a becomes -i in the sematic form, which also causes fronting of the -ủ- to -ey-. Finally, diaphony occurs, changing -bm- to -mm-, to yield the sematic form leymmi.

§4.1.5 Consonantal Nouns

Beyond enteraphonic and archeaphonic nouns of the bisyllabic declension group, there are also mono-, bi- and polysyllabic nouns that end in a consonant. Consonantal nouns are declined according to their word-final consonant, and in some cases the quality of the vowel that precedes it. Their sematic form is one syllable longer (with a few exceptions in the bisyllabic -s consonantal declension) and ends in a vowel. For example, all polysyllabic nouns ending in -n have a sematic form in -ma.

§4.1.6 Schizaphonic Nouns

Schizaphonic nouns are the monosyllabic equivalent of bi- or polysyllabic consonantal nouns. Such nouns are monosyllabic and end in a consonant. They are called schizaphonic because the asematic form is a truncated or shortened form of the underlying form, and when schizaphonic nouns are found in their sematic form, they become bisyllabic and consonantal. For example, sġoan ‘small cut’ has the sematic form sġoangon. Schizaphonic nouns differ from monosyllabic consonantal nouns in that they have a word-final consonant in the sematic form. For example, ġỉn ‘small box’ is a monosyllabic consonantal noun and it has the sematic form ġỉdna (ending in a vowel), while the schizaphonic noun ƛẻn 'cuff' has a sematic form in ƛẻngen (ending in a consonant). Schizaphonic nouns form their asematic plural based on their underlying form instead of their asematic form, although without a word-final consonant (which is in fact a marker of the sematic form), which is unique to this declension. The word sġoan ‘small cut’ has the asematic plural form sġoangogi, not *sġoangi as one would expect from a consonantal noun. In contrast, ġỉn ‘small box’ has the asematic plural form ġỉnkki (or ġỉngi).

§4.1.7 Teleutophonic Nouns

Teleutophonic nouns are nouns whose last syllable changes regularly in the sematic form. Such nouns are usually derived nouns whose derivational ending has a specific sematic form. For example, nouns derived from verbs in -u are teleutophonic nouns, because they all have a sematic form in -oga (linnu ‘word’ ⟫ lỉdnoga).

§4.1.8 Apocoptic Nouns

A subgroup of trisyllabic nouns are called apocoptic nouns. These nouns undergo apocope or deletion of their last syllable in the sematic form, meaning that they go from a trisyllabic asematic form to a consonant-final or geminate final bisyllabic form. For example, oįula ‘dwarf birch’ undergoes apocope in the sematic form (along with other diaphonic changes) to yield ỏįįul.

§4.1.9 Enantiophones, Parantiophones & Paromophones

In nominal declensions, the vowel involved in the formation of sematic forms can change in three ways.

When a last vowel of a noun in its sematic form has the opposite polarity (or is -y-, which is not affected by polarity inversion) of the stressed nucleus and is tense, it is called an enantiophone. All heterorganic symphonic nouns end in an enantiophone (-i, -u or -y), for example dimmi ‘(older) brother’ has the sematic form dỉmu.

When a last vowel of a noun has the opposite polarity in its sematic form to its asematic form but is lax, as in all homorganic symphonic nouns, it is called an parantiophone. The only difference between enantiophones and parantiophones is that enantiophones are tense, while paromophones are lax. For example, sallįa ‘lakeshore’ has the sematic form sảlįen, where -e- is a parantiophone.

Lastly the last vowel of a noun in its sematic form has the same polarity as that of the asematic vowel but is lax (-e-, -o- or -ů-), it is called a paromophone. All heterorganic antiphonic nouns end in a paromophone, for example bakvi ‘house’ ⟫ boagve.

§4.1.10 Declension Polarity

The formation of oblique cases from the sematic form follows what is called declension polarity, of which there are three main types – a declension pattern can have amphiphonic polarity (-i-/-e-), opisthophonic polarity (-u-/-o-/-a-), prosthophonic polarity (-y-/-ů-). For example, front polarity nouns have en illative in -et while back polarity nouns will have -ot and prosthophonic nouns have -ůt. A polarity series is a set of endings with a specific declension polarity. For example, the illative -et is part of the front polarity series of declensional endings. Declensions are said to be propolar when the alignment of declension suffixes aligns with the polarity of the root nucleus, or contrapolar when it does not.

Additionally, amphiphonic and opisthophonic polarities can undergo prosthothesis, whereby any ending containing -u- or -o- become front-rounded:

§4.1.11 Case Formation

Each sematic case has a few number of forms that can be deduced from the overall declension of a noun. For example, the elative plural has the ending -Vngit (-ingit, -ungit, -yngit) or in some cases -VVngit (-eungit, -uingit, -eůngit). Below is a list of the various forms, abstracted to apply to all possible declension patterns, for the sematic cases. Note that the endings for the sematic case (the common form to the patientive, accusative and genitive case) may be followed by a consonant.

Some rare cases are not given here, including the abessive in -(v)uġġit and the ornative in -ussit/-issit. The former is derived from an older form of the comitative in -(v)en/-(v)on/-(v)ůn, which has been replaced by the originally viative case endings in -(C/g/kk)-it/-ut.

§4.1.11.1 Sematic Case Endings

-C

The sematic form of a noun, its marked form, is the form from which all cases except the essive and the unmarked forms are derived. The sematic form is the surface form of both the patientive and the accusative as well as the genitive (though in some cases with slight modifications). For monosyllabic nouns, the singular sematic case is usually a bisyllabic form with either a geminated consonant (in the case of consonantal nouns) or a glide (in the case of monosyllabic diphthong and geminate nouns).

For non-consonantal bisyllabic nouns, homorganicity triggers the appearance of a final -n, while consonantal nouns are more varied in their sematic forms. Non-consonantal bisyllabic nouns that are symphonic will undergo polarity inversion (back nuclei become fronted and the final vowel becomes fronted as well, and vice-versa for front-nuclei nouns), while antiphonic nouns are propolar, meaning front nuclei undergo front apophony and back nuclei undergo back apophony, while final vowels are relaxed. Trisyllabic nouns are either apocoptic, meaning they become bisyllabic in the sematic form, or they may be consonantal or teleutophonic, in which case they have a set sematic form determined by their last syllable in the asematic form. Polysyllabic nouns are either teleutophonic or treated as N+2 or N+3 syllable nouns. In the case of consonantal nouns in -t, the plural sematic endings are -eut/-uit/-eyt.

The plural ending of the sematic case is -vt or in some cases -vːt. The vowel is contrapolar to the asematic form if it ends in a vowel, and normally propolar to the series of the singular sematic form if the noun does not end in a vowel or is apocoptic (which itself is usually contrapolar, making it therefore contrapolar).

§4.1.11.2 Inessive Case Endings

The singular inessive case endings are -imut/-imyt, -umit and -ymit (prosthothetic). It is propolar to the sematic form. There also exists a truncative series found in various cases, -mmut/-mmyt (with front vowels) and -mmit (with back vowels or front-rounded vowels) and in a handful of cases, -ṃṃut/-ṃṃit/-ṃṃyt. Inessive singular endings can only appear following a tense vowel, and in the case of truncative endings, this may affect the nature of a root vowel.

Truncative singular forms appear in the following cases:

1) with homorganic and enteraphonic nouns whose sematic form ends in -n:

2) with monosyllabic consonantal nouns whose sematic form ends in -ỏ or -eů (nouns in -l, -r):

3) with monosyllabic consonantal nouns in -s, though with devoicing and deletion of -h-:

4) with monosyllabic consonantal nouns in -ts and -n with deletion of the root final consonant:

5) with schizaphonic nouns:

7) with apocoptic nouns in -n, -l, -s and -r (alternatively non-truncative), -t and -ġ:

The plural inessive endings are -isit, -usut, -ysyt and in some cases -eussut/-eyssyt (or -eyssit), -uissit and -eyssyt in the same polarity as singular forms. Forms in -eyssyt and -eyssit can be used interchangeably. The plural long forms appear in the following cases:

1) with bi- and triconsonantal nouns in -t and front-aligning nouns in -ts (-eussut or -eyssyt):

2) with triconsonantal apocoptic nouns in -t:

Special geminate forms are found with nouns whose sematic singular ends in a geminate vowel. Such forms are -iussit, -uissit or -aissit and -ỷssyt.

§4.1.11.3 Illative Case Endings

The singular illative case endings are -et/-ot/-ůt and in the plural -ittit/-uttut/-yttyt or -eittit/-ủttut/-ỷttyt or -eyttyt. The plural endings have opposite polarity to their singular forms. Where ever a noun has a long inessive plural form, it also has a long illative plural form. Unlike the other oblique cases, the illative is propolar with the sematic case in the singular, but contrapolar in the plural.

1) with bi- and triconsonantal nouns in -t and front-aligning nouns in -ts (-eyttyt):

2) with triconsonantal apocoptic nouns in -t:

Special geminate forms are found with nouns whose sematic singular ends in a geminate vowel. Such forms are -ỉttit, -ủttut or -auttut/-ayttyt and -ỷttyt.

§4.1.11.4 Elative Case Endings

The elative case has singular forms in -innit/-unnit/-ynnit and in some cases -eunnit/-uinnit/-eynnit and plural forms in -ingit/-ungit/-yngit as well as long forms in -eungit~-eyngit/-uingit/-eůngit and geminate forms in -iungit, -uingit or -aingit and -ỷngit which mirror the inessive forms. There is no alteration in consonant quality like in the inessive, but the pattern is otherwise identical. Like the inessive, the elative endings have the same polarity as the sematic ending. The singular forms have alternative short forms in -ỉn/-ủn/-ỷn or -eun/-uin/-eyn which are required with possessive affixes and often have a more abstract meaning. Short forms are commonly found in adverbs and postpositions, and are found in numerous idioms. In addition, when the elative directly precedes a second noun also in a locative case, the short forms are heavily favoured, for example in gaġvỉlįuin ỉlįuit ‘from generation to generation’, nįuoggossỉn teubmosset ‘from stern to bow’ and pỉįủn teulpṃot ‘from dawn till dusk’.

1) with bi- and triconsonantal nouns in -t and front-aligning nouns in -ts (-eungit or -eyngit):

2) with triconsonantal apocoptic nouns in -t:

Special geminate forms are found with nouns whose sematic singular ends in a geminate vowel. Such forms are -iungit, -uingit or -aingit and -ỷngit.

§4.1.11.5 Comitative Case Endings

-CCit

-CCut

-CCyt

The comitative endings are perhaps the most complex of the case system in Pine. In the singular, they mirror the truncation of the inessive, such that wherever a long inessive ending is found, a long comitative is also found, and in the cases of various consonantal stems, a geminate form is found in the singular – with the notable exception that -ṃṃit/-ṃṃut does not correspond to a long form in the comitative. In the plural, the comitative distinguishes short, long and geminate plural forms like the three locative cases. The comitative differs from the inessive in one important manner: the front-rounded forms in -igyt or -ikkyt (or -ccyt) are only found with a stem containing a front-rounded vowel, whereas the inessive uses the front-rounded forms -imyt or -immyt with any front vowel. If any non-front vowel (including -a-) comes between the comitative ending and the noun, front-rounding does not occur.

The long truncative forms in the singular are found in the following cases:

1) with homorganic and enteraphonic nouns whose sematic form ends in -n:

2) with monosyllabic consonantal nouns whose sematic form ends in -ỏ or -eů (nouns in -l, -r):

3) with simple monosyllabic consonantal nouns in -s:

4) with monosyllabic consonantal nouns in -ts and -n:

5) with schizaphonic nouns:

For the plural comitative endings, long forms are used in a pattern that mirrors that of the inessive:

1) with bi- and triconsonantal nouns in -t including apocoptic nouns in -t:

2) with triconsonantal apocoptic nouns in -t:

3) with triconsonantal apocoptic nouns in -ġ- and teleutophonic nouns in -det/-dot/-důt and -e(h)hit/-o(h)hut/-ů(h)hyt, geminate forms are used:

Special geminate forms are found with nouns whose sematic singular ends in a geminate vowel. Such forms are -iun, -uin or -ain and -ỷn.

§4.1.11.6 Essive Case Endings

The essive case is the only non-asematic case that is formed on the bases of the asematic ending of a noun. There are three sets of essive cases: short and long forms as well as a consonantal form in -c-ts or -c-tsa in the singular. where long forms have a geminate vowel. Short forms are found with all adjectival roots, all non-consonantal monosyllabic nouns and

The consonantal forms in -ts, -tsa or -ttsa are used in the following cases:

3) with bi- and trisyllabic consonantal nouns in -l, -r and -ts, the form -tsa is used in the singular:

4) with trisyllabic nouns ending in a vowel, -ts is used (without gemination):

All bisyllabic nominal stems ending in a vowel have the geminated essive case endings:

§4.2 Monosyllabic Nouns

Monosyllabic nouns have a total of seven regular declension patterns: dipthongal (symphonic or antiphonic), geminal (front or back), consonantal and schizaphonic (symphonic or antiphonic). Monosyllabic nouns lack the homorganic/heterorganic distinction of bisyllabic nouns simply because they have a single syllable in their asematic form.

§4.2.1 Monosyllabic Diphthongal Nouns

Monosyllabic diphthongal nouns are nouns whose asematic form is monosyllabic and which end in a diphthong. They represent a small portion of Pine nouns and are comparatively simple to decline. There are two declension patterns for monosyllabic nouns – if both components of the diphthong have the same polarity (both front or both back vowels), then it is said to be symphonic (sometimes called homopolar), while if the diphthong consists of a front and a back vowel, then it is said to be antiphonic (sometimes called heteropolar). Symphonic and antiphonic nouns decline nearly identically.

Monosyllabic diphthongal nouns form their sematic form by introducing a geminate glide, either -įį- or -vv- after the first component of the diphthong, replacing the second element (and thus causing loss of the diphthong). The glide is polarly opposite to the diphthong if it is symphonic (front diphthongs have -vv- and back dipthongs have -įį-), while the final vowel is enantiophonic. The opposite is true of antiphonic diphthongs – the glide is of the same polarity (-įį- for front diphthongs and -vv- for back dipthongs), while the final vowel is paromophonic.

For example, tey ‘egg’ is symphonic and has front polarity, which means the glide will be -vv- and the final vowel augment will be enantiophonic (-i-), to yield tevvi. The word iu ‘forefather’ is antiphonic and has front polarity, meaning the glide will be -įį- and the final vowel augment will be paromophonic (-e-) to yield iįįe.

Below are examples to illustrate this pattern:

monosyllabic diphthongal symphonic

monosyllabic diphthongal antiphonic

The declension of oblique cases and the sematic plural as a three-way polarity distinction:

Forms marked with Ø- indicate that the asematic form is the base for the formation of the declined case. This is true of the essive singular and plural and the comitative plural.

§4.2.1.1 Monosyllabic Diphthongal Symphonic

‘little boy’

‘egg’

‘passed relative’

§4.2.1.2 Monosyllabic Diphthongal Antiphonic

‘scar’

‘edge’

§4.2.2 Monosyllabic Geminal Nouns

Monosyllabic geminal nouns are nouns whose asematic form is monosyllabic and ends in a geminate vowel. Their declension is identical to that of monosyllabic diphthongal nouns is nearly identical in most respects except two – the geminate vowel is shortened, and there is no distinction between symphony and antiphony – all monosyllabic geminal nouns decline like symphonic monosyllabic diphthongal nouns. Both ả and oa are degeminated to a.

front degemination

back gemination

Otherwise, the declension of monosyllabic geminal nouns is the same as that of monosyllabic diphthongal nouns:

monosyllabic diphthongal front

monosyllabic diphthongal back

Like monosyllabic diphthongal nouns, the monosyllabic geminal noun declension has a three-way polarity distinction for oblique cases and the sematic plural.

Forms marked with Ø- indicate that the asematic form is the base for the formation of the declined case. This is true of the essive singular and plural and the comitative plural.

§4.2.2.1 Monosyllabic Geminal Back

‘pus’

’visible breath’

§4.2.2.2 Monosyllabic Geminal Front

‘small plant’

‘gum disease’

§4.2.3 Monosyllabic Consonantal Declensions

Monosyllabic nouns ending in a consonant and whose sematic form ends in a vowel are termed monosyllabic consonantal nouns. Unlike other declension types, consonantal declension paradigms are entirely dependent on the nature of final consonant. As such, an asematic consonantal ending will have one or more corresponding sematic form. It is not always possible to tell exactly what kind of ending a consonantal noun will take in the sematic form, which makes these paradigms more difficult to memorise.

Pine nouns may end in -t -l -r -s -ṡ -ts -n, -k and -ḳ in the eastern dialects, but western dialects replace word-final dorsals (-k and -ḳ) by -t.

§4.2.3.1 Monosyllabic Consonantal Nouns in -t

Monosyllabic consonant nouns ending in -t have a coronal sematic form in -dda. In western dialects, the -k and -ḳ consonantal declensions have an asematic form in -t. Like all monosyllabic consonantal nouns, there is only a single declension polarity.

Examples of monosyllabic consonantal nouns in -t include:

There are three nouns in Pine that have special sematic form in -tva: důat, důatva ‘bird’s nest’, kįỉt, kįỉtva ‘reindeer calf’ and ṛeit, ṛeitva ‘serrated blade’.

The declension pattern for monosyllabic consonantal nouns has a single front polarity series. The asematic plural has two forms, which are both acceptable, one in -ttṡi and one in -kki.

‘skeleton’

‘earthworm’

§4.2.3.2 Monosyllabic Consonantal Nouns in -k/-ḳ

Monosyllabic consonantal nouns in -k (dorsal) and -ḳ (labiodorsal) are found in eastern dialects, whereas western dialects decline them as monosyllabic -t nouns. Nouns with an asematic form in -k have a sematic form in -gga, while labialised nouns in -ḳ have -kva. Dorsal nouns have a front polarity series while labiodorsals have a back polarity series. The illative plural has a short form in -ġtut/-ġtyt for dorsal nouns.

dorsal

labiodorsal

§4.2.3.2.1 Monosyllabic -k Nouns

‘tall and slander person’

§4.2.3.2.2 Monosyllabic -ḳ Nouns

‘surface (of water)’

§4.2.3.3 Monosyllabic Consonantal Nouns in -l

Monosyllabic consonant nouns ending in -l have two sets of declension patterns. The first declension has -ḷḷỏ or -ḷḷeů in the sematic form, called the geminal -l declension, and the second has -ƛƛỏ or -ƛƛeů, called the complex -l declension. Both declensions have the back polarity series of case endings, but a front-rounded version exists with front-rounded nuclei. The illative plural has a short form in -ltit/-ltyt for geminal nouns.

Examples of monosyllabic consonantal nouns in -l include:

geminal -l

complex -l

§4.2.3.3.1 Monosyllabic Geminal -l Nouns

‘tail bone’

‘adult mite’

§4.2.3.3.2 Monosyllabic Complex -l Nouns

‘female stoat’

‘compound leaf’

§4.2.3.4 Monosyllabic Consonantal Nouns in -r

Monosyllabic consonant nouns ending in -r have a single set of declension with a back polarity series of case endings and a front-rounded series for front-rounded nuclei. Monosyllabic nouns in -r form a very small group of nouns. The asematic ending -r becomes -ṛṛỏ or -ṛṛeů. The illative plural has a short form in -rtit/-rtyt.

Examples of monosyllabic consonantal nouns in -r include:

‘tuft of hair’

‘spark, ember’

§4.2.3.5 Monosyllabic Consonantal Nouns in -s

Monosyllabic consonant nouns ending in -s have two sets of declension patterns. One pattern replaces the asematic -s with -hi (called the simple -s declension) in the sematic form, while the second pattern is more varied. The final -s is replaced by the ending of the form -s-C-a, where C can be -k-, -kv-, -ġ-, -ġv-, -s- or -ƛ-, and in a single word -ƛv-. This subdeclension is called the complex -s declension. and only contains a small number of words. All monosyllabic simple -s nouns have the front polarity series of case endings, while complex -s nouns have the back polarity series. The illative plural has a short form in -ttut/-ttyt for dorsal nouns.

simple -s

complex -s

The essive singular and plural is geminated in monosyllabic -s nouns.

§4.2.3.5.1 Monosyllabic Simple -s Nouns

‘dried grass’

‘large animal droppings’

§4.2.3.5.2 Monosyllabic Complex -s Nouns

‘heavy snowfall’

‘cold humid air’

§4.2.3.6 Monosyllabic Consonantal Nouns in -ts

Monosyllabic consonant nouns ending in -ts have a single set of declension pattern with a back polarity series, and a front-rounded series for front-rounded nuclei. There are only a handful of nouns in this declension. Their sematic form ends in -ḍḍa. The illative plural has a short form in -ttit/-ttyt.

Examples of monosyllabic simple -ts nouns:

‘root burl’

‘heavy sleet’

§4.2.3.7 Monosyllabic Consonantal Nouns in -n

Monosyllabic consonant nouns ending in -n can decline according to one of three patterns, termed labial, dental and dorsal. All monosyllabic -n nouns have a contracted asematic form which unfolds in the sematic form to reveal a preglottalised cluster followed by -a.This declension has case endings in the back polarity series and in the front-rounded series for front-rounded nuclei.

labial

dental

dorsal

The declension of consonantal -n nouns can be abstracted for all three subclasses as shown below, where -ʔN- indicates a preglottalised nasal of labial (-bma, -dna or -kna respectively). The essive singular ends in -nttsa while the plural has -nttsot, though some speakers devoice the essive to -ntsa and -ntsot, usually doing the same for the asematic plural, having -nki instead of -nkki.

§4.2.3.7.1 Monosyllabic Consonantal Labial -n Nouns

‘limit’

‘well-fed child’

§4.2.3.7.2 Monosyllabic Consonantal Dental -n Nouns

‘calcaneus’

§4.2.3.7.3 Monosyllabic Consonantal Dorsal -n Nouns

‘very still weather’

§4.2.4 Monosyllabic Schizaphonic Declensions

Schizaphonic declensions are very similar to their consonantal counterparts but differ in two main ways – the sematic ends in -n, and the polarity series is dependent on the polarity of the nucleus, resulting in a sort of vowel harmony. For example, monosyllabic consonantal nouns in -r have a sematic form in -ṛṛỏ, but schizaphonic nouns in -r can have -ṛṛen, -ṛṛon or -ṛṛůn. Oblique cases other than the comitative singular do not differ other than through their polarity series. The comitative singular is usually -ikkut/-ukkit/-ykkit in schizaphonic nouns, with occasional devoicing of voiced geminate stops preceding the case ending, for example tsỉk ⟫ tsỉggen ⟫ tsỉkkikkut ‘splinter’ (not *tsỉggikkut). A few nouns have forms not found in monosyllabic non-schizaphonic declensions. The asematic plural of schizaphonic nouns is formed on the basis of the sematic form of the noun instead of the asematic as in monosyllabic consonantal nouns. For example, consonantal nouns in -r have a plural in -rki, but schizaphonic nouns in -r have a plural in -ṛṛegi, -ṛṛogi or -ṛṛůgi. Like all monosyllabic nouns, the asematic plural undergoes vowel fronting.

There is unfortunately no way to tell whether a monosyllabic noun ending in a consonant belongs to the consonantal declension group of the schizaphonic declension group, but fortunately both declension groups are rather small.

§4.2.4.1 Monosyllabic Schizaphonic Nouns in -t

Monosyllabic schizaphonic nouns in -t decline much like their consonantal counterparts but the comitative singular has forms in -tven/-tvon/-tvůn. There are only a few schizaphonic nouns in -t:

§4.2.4.1.1 Monosyllabic Schizaphonic Front Polarity Nouns in -t

‘small cut’

§4.2.4.1.2 Monosyllabic Schizaphonic Back Polarity Nouns in -t

‘crayfish’

§4.2.4.1.3 Monosyllabic Schizaphonic Front-Rounded Polarity Nouns in -t

‘someone with short hair’

§4.2.4.2 Monosyllabic Schizaphonic Nouns in -k

Monosyllabic schizaphonic nouns in -k are few, and there is no schizaphonic noun in -ḳ. The comitative singular has the form -kven/-kvon/-kvůn. The illative plural has a short form in -ktut/-ktit/-ktyt.

§4.2.4.2.1 Monosyllabic Schizaphonic Front Polarity Nouns in -k

‘splinter (in skin)’

§4.2.4.2.2 Monosyllabic Schizaphonic Back Polarity Nouns in -k

‘stock dove’

§4.2.4.2.3 Monosyllabic Schizaphonic Front-Rounded Polarity Nouns in -k

‘canine tooth’

§4.2.4.3 Monosyllabic Schizaphonic Nouns in -l

All monosyllabic schizaphonic nouns in -l have a sematic form in -ƛƛen/-ƛƛon/-/ƛƛůn, there is no corresponding simple -l declension for schizaphonic nouns. The comitative singular has the form -ƛven/-ƛvon/-ƛvůn. Two nouns have an irregular declension: tsỉl ‘ant’ has the sematic form tsỉƛken and in the oblique cases declines line a schizaphonic -k noun (tsỉƛken, tsỉƛkimmyt, tsỉƛket, tsỉƛkinnit, tsỉƛkikkut) but has the essive singular form tsỉltsa and the essive plural form tsỉlttset, and skuol ‘perch’ has the sematic form skuoldon and declines like an schizaphonic -t noun (skuoldon, skuoldummut, skuoldot, skuoldunnit, skuoldukkit) but has the essive singular forms skuoltsa and the essive plural form skuolttsot.

§4.2.4.3.1 Monosyllabic Schizaphonic Front Polarity Nouns in -l

‘ladle’

§4.2.4.3.2 Monosyllabic Schizaphonic Back Polarity Nouns in -l

‘(wood) chip’

§4.2.4.3.3 Monosyllabic Schizaphonic Front-Rounded Polarity Nouns in -l

‘leash’

§4.2.4.4 Monosyllabic Schizaphonic Nouns in -r

Monosyllabic schizaphonic nouns in -r have a sematic form in -ṛṛen/-ṛṛon/-ṛṛůn. There are only four such nouns. The asematic plural -ṛṛogi is not found as kaur is fronted to kayṛṛůgi. The illative plural has short forms in -rtut/-rtit/-rtyt.